Experiences of Students who are Visually Impaired Receiving Services by Disabilities Support Services (DSS) Offices in Higher Education Institutions

Silvia M. Correa-Torres; Paula Conroy; Amber Rundle-Kahn; Tara Brown-Ogilvie

Experiences of Students who are Visually Impaired Receiving Services by Disabilities Support Services (DSS) Offices in Higher Education Institutions

By Silvia M. Correa-Torres, Paula Conroy, Amber Rundle-Kahn, and Tara Brown-Ogilvie

Silvia M. Correa-Torres is a Professor in the School of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado.

Paula Conroy is a Professor in the School of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado.

Amber Rundle-Kahn is a Doctoral Student in the School of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado.

Tara Brown-Ogilvie is a Doctoral Student in the School of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado.

Abstract

This study reports the results of interviews conducted with students with visual impairments attending institutions of higher education. The interviews were conducted to learn about participants’ experiences with disability support services (DSS) offices at their university or college. Findings of this study revealed themes within the following areas: (1) self-advocacy and problem-solving, (2) orientation and mobility (O&M), (3) technology, and (4) personal management skills. Discussion provides insights learned by the researchers when supporting students who are blind or visually impaired for post-secondary education.

Keywords

Disability Support Services, DSS, visual impairment, blindness

As the number of students with disabilities attending institutions of higher education continues to increase, the responsibilities of disability support services (DSS) offices also increase (Amendment of ADA, 2016; Getzel, 2008; Madaus, 2011). According to data collected by the US Department of Education in 2008, approximately 707,000 students with disabilities were enrolled in both public and private colleges or universities in the United States; students with disabilities comprised approximately 11 percent of all undergraduate students in 2007-2008 and 2011-2012 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). With advances in civil rights, technologies, and special education services, it is likely that the number of students with disabilities attending post-secondary institutions will continue to increase (Henderson, 2001).

Although the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates institutions of higher education to provide equal access to students with disabilities (National Federation of the Blind, n.d.), nowhere in the law is it stated that institutions of higher education are required to have formal DSS offices. Institutions are obliged to ensure that programs are accessible to students with disabilities, which has resulted in the establishment of DSS offices on campuses (National Federation of the Blind, n.d.). Consequently, DSS offices are an administrative response to institutional obligations, and have become nearly universal in higher education in the United States.

Many students experience hurdles while navigating their college experience; however, for students with disabilities managing coursework and accommodations could present additional challenges (Getzel, 2008). Supports that were readily assessed, monitored, and provided for under the umbrella of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004 in grade school are no longer required at the post-secondary level. With IDEA no longer applicable in the post-secondary setting, students with disabilities must assume the responsibilities of self-advocacy and case management for their accommodation needs. Newman, Madaus, and Javitz (2016) analyzed data from the second National Longitudinal Transition Study and found that between one-third to one-half of students with disabilities reported not receiving transition services specific to post-secondary education during high school.

There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that students with disabilities entering college may avoid initial disclosure of their disability, in turn creating a barrier to accessing university provided disability support services (Getzel, 2008; Hong 2015; Kreider, Bendixen, & Lutz, 2015; Marshak, Van Wieren, Ferrell, Swiss, & Dugan, 2010). Barnard-Brack, Lechtenberger, and Lan (2010) studied strategies used by college students with disabilities. The researchers found evidence that many students with disabilities are not seeking services from DSS or are delaying their request for services. Marshak, et al. (2010) found that many students wanted to shed their high school identities of being disabled. Since DSS offices do not seek out students with disabilities, it is the student’s responsibility to disclose and advocate for their individual needs. If students choose not to disclose their disability, instructors are not required to provide for them. In addition to the theme of disclosure, there is evidence to suggest that students decline disability support services for a number of additional reasons. Hong (2015) and Kreider, Bendixen, and Lutz (2015) examined reasons for declining disability services and found similar results. Participants in both studies shared negative experiences with advocating, fear and doubt of advocating, and beliefs that they would need to complete their studies without assistance to be better prepared for the workforce.

Few existing studies focus exclusively on the college experience of students with visual impairments (VI). Thus, gaps are present in the literature around the experiences and efficiency of accommodations that the DSS office offers specifically for students who are blind or visually impaired (Pingry O'Neill, Markward, & French, 2012). A study conducted by Myers and Bastian (2010) focused on the communication preferences of college students with visual impairments. Their study revealed students articulating the necessity of disability awareness training and application of Universal Design for Learning principles. Additionally, participants voiced a need for basic respect and comfortable interactions with DSS staff. Another study that focused exclusively on the VI population found that professionals who work with students with visual impairments identified a need for professional development in disability awareness among higher education faculty (Reed & Curtis, 2011). Both of these studies indicate a need for further examination of the needs and experiences of college students who are blind or visually impaired receiving disability support services.

As stated before, data on post-secondary experiences of learners with blindness or visual impairments is scant. Like many areas of research on students with visual impairments, sourcing meaningful quantitative information on post-secondary students with visual impairments is challenging. Kircher and Smith (2005) raise the concern of utilizing National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2) data for understanding transition issues with students with visual impairments: students with additional disabilities are not likely identified as students with visual impairment for the NLTS2 data set. Thus, gaps exist both in the literature and available data for analysis. The documented trends of the increasing post-secondary enrollment among the community of learners with disabilities, and the issue of barriers to effective DSS, guide the aim of this study.

For students with disabilities, higher education offers prospects for advancing employment opportunities while also increasing possibilities for social and community involvement (Capella-McDonnall, 2005; Kircher & Smith, 2005; Newman et al., 2011). Students with blindness or visual impairment are “just as likely or more likely than the general population to attend post-secondary school” (McDonnall, 2010, p. 302). The purpose of this study was to investigate the experiences of college students with visual impairments receiving disability support services at institutions of higher education. The authors hope to contribute to a deeper understanding of the DSS experiences of post-secondary learners with visual impairments with the following research questions:

(a) What are the services that students with visual impairment/blindness receive in institutions of higher education?
(b) What are the perceived needs of students who are visually impaired when receiving services from Disability Support Services offices in institutions of higher education?

Methodology

Sampling Procedures

Participants for this study were recruited through social media and snowball sampling recruitment strategy. Vogt (1999) defined snowball sampling as a technique for finding research participants, in which one participant gives the researcher the name of another participant, who in turn provides the name of a third, and so on. This method can be useful when attempting to identify a small number of participants with unique characteristics and experiences. After making initial contact, potential participants were asked to return the consent form following Institutional Review Board (IRB) procedures at the University of Northern Colorado. Once consent forms were received, phone interviews were scheduled by the researchers.

Interviews

Qualitative research methods were used in this study. Interviews with potential participants were conducted by phone by two of the researchers. Interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed by an online transcription service provider. After reviewing the literature, nine interview questions were developed specifically for this study and asked of each participant. Prior to conducting the interviews, participants were given an opportunity to read and sign the consent form, review the interview questions, and fill out a demographic questionnaire that included information about their gender, age, time between high school and the start of college/university, ethnicity, enrolled in undergraduate or graduate degree, visual status, visual acuity, and literacy mode. During the interviews, questions were elaborated upon when the interviewer or interviewee felt further clarification was necessary. Each interview took approximately 20-35 minutes.

Participants

A total of ten students with visual impairment who were attending institutions of higher education and who were receiving services from the DSS office at their institution participated in this study. Participants identified themselves as: female (8), male (1), and non-binary (1). When asked about their ethnic background, most participants (8) self-identified as White/Caucasian, (1) as Asian, and (1) as Hispanic. Ages ranged between 19 to 35 years. Table 1 provides more detailed demographic information about participants in this study.

Data Analysis

Following the interviews, data were analyzed to determine systematic categories through coding. Each audiotaped interview was transcribed verbatim and analyzed using a sequential three-step qualitative analysis process referred to as open, axial, and selective coding procedures (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). First, two interview transcripts were independently open coded by two of the researchers. This process involved reading through the transcripts line by line and applying an open code to the data. The participants’ words were selected directly from the transcripts and used as the open code. After independently open coding the first two transcripts, the authors reviewed the open codes and identified procedures for analyzing the remaining interviews. This process was used to ensure there is agreement about the open coding procedures and overall data analysis. Next, all of the remaining transcripts were coded using the open coding procedure. The second stage of data analysis, referred to as axial coding, was used to establish open codes to identify relationships among each other. This process involved identifying related concepts and categories within the data. Essentially, the open codes were grouped into larger related categories. The last stage, selective coding, involved reviewing the code categories and identifying which categories were prominent in more than half of the transcripts. These categories were collapsed into larger themes. Finally, quotes were selected to illustrate the themes.

Table 1: Demographics

Pseudo Name	Level of Studies	Major	Vision Status	Literacy Mode
Hermione	Undergraduate	Geology	Low Vision	P, LP, Audio
Laura	Undergraduate	Chemistry	Low Vision	P, LP
Trish	Undergraduate	Psychology	“Very” Low Vision	Braille
Elaine	Graduate	Special Education	“Very” Low Vision	Braille, Audio
Mary	Graduate	Instructional Technology	Low Vision	Braille, LP, Audio
Sam	Graduate	Social Work	Blind	Braille, Audio
Taylor	Undergraduate	Special Education	Blind/“Very” Low Vision	Audio, Braille
Jenny	Graduate	Human Services	Low Vision	Braille, Audio, Print
AT	Undergraduate	Arts	Low Vision in one eye, no vision in the other	LP, Audio
AB	Undergraduate	Psychology	Light Perception	Braille, Audio

Notes: LP = Large Print

Results

The participants openly shared their experiences with disability support services in their institution of higher education (universities and community colleges). Data analysis revealed themes within the following areas: (1) self-advocacy and problem-solving, (2) orientation and mobility (O&M), (3) technology, and (4) personal management skills.

Self-Advocacy

The theme that was most prominent in the data was the need for self-advocacy due to the way DSS offices function. All of the participants reported similar experiences. The low staff to student ratio, frequent turnover in staff, and having to teach the staff how to get materials in accessible format. Students expressed frustration with the lack of experience and problem-solving on the part of the DSS office staff. Participants voiced that social skills were very important because they had to take initiative and learn to be assertive rather than aggressive to get their need for accommodations met.

Participants reported that braille was almost non-existent in higher education unless they advocated hard for it in a socially acceptable manner. Timely production of the braille materials they did get was an issue because once the materials finally arrived, students were behind in classes. One of the participants shared that “Getting textbooks has its own issue… I actually had to train the DSS office [on] how to make math accessible.” Participants stressed the necessity of using technology to access braille along with audio materials and learning the skills to access materials in a timely manner.

Finally, due to these challenges, several of the participants in this study chose not to seek assistance from DSS offices at all. Most students reported that they preferred to share their disability on an “as needed” basis in order to get accommodations through direct communication with instructors and teaching these instructors how to make materials accessible. This personal interaction took a high level of self-confidence and initiative as students had to rely on their self-advocacy skills. One participant stated: “Every term started from scratch, even sometimes when I had the same professors. It's like, I had to start over. I had to go and I had to say, ‘These are the things I know I need’.”

Orientation and Mobility

Disability support services offices at colleges did not typically provide orientation and mobility (O&M) for students with visual impairment. One participant reported, “When I asked for O&M services through DSS, they said that they didn’t do that and couldn’t get it for me.” An orientation and mobility specialist from the school district most often taught public transportation and oriented the participants to college campuses. In several cases, an orientation and mobility specialist from Vocational Rehabilitation assisted with this training. The amount of instruction varied from a few hours to three days total. Participants reported that the only O&M service they received from DSS was for someone to walk them through their schedule at the beginning of the semester.

Technology

Participants reported that DSS staff were efficient in procuring educational equipment, including technology. However, there was limited to no training on learning how to use this technology as this was said to be a responsibility of Vocational Rehabilitation services. DSS was quick to repair or replace the necessary items in almost all instances. Offices that provided support services at larger universities had more technology available, but also had more students who needed to use it. Another issue reported by participants was that just because the DSS office had technology, it didn’t necessarily mean that anyone working there knew how to use it. This included braille embossers, notetakers, screen readers and software, among others.

Personal Management Skills

Participants reported that the education received while in high school prepared them well in the area of personal management skills. This included daily living skills and academic skills, including organization and note taking, among others. Skills for living in the dorms independently (cooking, cleaning, laundry) were also addressed well in high school. Social skills instruction was an area of reported need, as were skills in planning and use of unstructured free time for recreation and leisure: “At four-year colleges there needs to be a lot more initiative on the students’ part to socialize… I think the social piece was definitely a challenge [when transitioning from community college to university]. In the community college I dealt with the academic part, but then moving to [university] I definitely wasn’t ready for the social area.”

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to determine what type of services students with visual impairment receive from DSS at institutions of higher education and how students perceive these services. Data analysis revealed themes within the following areas: (1) self-advocacy and problem-solving, (2) orientation and mobility (O&M), (3) technology, and (4) personal management skills. The themes that emerged in this study echo what other studies have found, including students not seeking out services, negative experiences, and DSS staff lack of knowledge of how to provide accommodations (Barnard-Brack et al., 2010; Hong, 2015). In addition to themes mentioned above, an interesting pattern of responses was observed: participants in this study experienced more challenges than satisfaction when attempting to receive services from DSS.

It is evident from the results that participants in this study were not satisfied with the support services they received at their institutions of higher education. Students with disabilities including blindness and visual impairments are not getting their needs met in a timely fashion. They feel that providing support isn’t a priority of most college administrations and that is what leads to the lack of trained staff and high personnel turnover. Often times, student-workers are hired at DSS offices to provide services to students with disabilities. Hiring students to work in the DSS office is problematic as workers leave once they graduate. The lack of permanent positions leads to a continuous revolving door of staff. Participants in this study expressed that connecting with one individual in the DSS office was the key in getting their needs met. Once they were familiar with one another, they could teach each other what they know. The unintended consequence of the lack of appropriate services and the lack of support has led to some students with visual impairments choosing not to use DSS at all due to the constant difficulties they have experienced. One participant said, “I tell all of my friends to work it out themselves as DSS will just lead to continual frustrations.” This lack of disclosure could set students with visual impairments up for failure because of the inability to access materials in a timely manner.

An interesting finding of this study was that smaller colleges were better able to help problem-solve individual issues that arose for students than larger institutions of higher education. A few examples involved working with the accessibility of materials in highly technical or in foreign language courses. Participants reported that DSS at smaller colleges sometimes provided live readers and notetakers who understood the content of these courses, so they were better able to communicate with the student-worker in an understandable way. This highly individualized service was not typically available at larger universities because there were not enough workers available through DSS. One participant who attended both a large university and then transferred to a smaller college shared, “At smaller colleges staff tried to problem-solve issues in courses. In larger universities, DSS staff say they don’t do that or they don’t know what you are talking about.” Again, this type of experience led the participants in this study to have to teach the DSS employee how to help them or to decline services altogether and figure out issues themselves. The common strategy was to work directly with the professor and bypass DSS altogether in order to get their needs met.

Participants in this study all worked with their professors to obtain accommodations at some level. They commented that most faculty care and will help, they just need to be told what to do and taught how to do it. An example is making portable document formats (pdfs) and PowerPoints accessible. This took a continual effort on the part of the student as approaching professors and teaching them how to help every semester can be intimidating. “Every semester was like climbing a new hill. Teaching professors how to help me in my courses takes so much energy.” Students expressed the need for assertiveness training in high school, so they had experience and even a script they could follow in how to present their individual issues to an instructor.

Recommendations from Participants and Implications for Practice

Reflecting on their own experiences in transitioning from high school to higher education, participants made several recommendations in how the process could improve for students with visual impairments. It was unanimously reported by participants that they received appropriate training in high school for college preparation in the areas of personal management, technology, academic skills (organization and study-skills), and literacy skills including braille. Vocational rehabilitation services were especially important after high school for procuring technology, some initial O&M instruction, and for social skills instruction. However, the amount of services provided in specific skills instruction vs the amount needed for the level of independence necessary in college was sorely lacking in several areas.

One area of need that was expressed by almost all of the participants in this study was in the area of orientation and mobility (O&M). The amount of O&M services provided to orient to campus was very low. Orientation to a campus happens through the student’s high school or through vocational rehabilitation services, depending on where the student lives. This is a one-time experience and is meant to be an overview, especially if the student with a visual impairment attends a university out of their home state. There seems to be a discrepancy between the accommodations students expect DSS to provide and the actual range of services these offices provide. Typical disability support services do not provide O&M training other than walking a student through their schedule one time at the beginning of the semester. This problem begs the question: Whose responsibility is it to provide O&M services on college campuses? As mentioned above, although ADA requires institutions to provide equal access to students with disabilities, the law does not clearly state what specific accommodations these offices have to provide; O&M services are not stated as one of those accommodations. This is a problem and can lead to a disastrous start to the school year. If a student cannot get to the classroom, the student cannot participate in the class. Participants in this study expressed a high level of concern about the lack of O&M services available to them and how they could advocate to solve this problem.

Several participants commented that they were not aware that moving from high school to college would be such a “dramatic transition.” The expectations at college were a lot higher and there were no “free passes.” Participants in this study stressed that high school teachers need to keep emphasizing this fact and begin to fade support services as the student moves through high school, even if it makes the high school student’s life more difficult. They recommend helping students with visual impairments develop strong social skills and self-advocacy skills so that they can articulate themselves well to get what they want or need from DSS and their professors. A related recommendation was that students be specifically taught how to use their unstructured time in preparation for all of the unstructured time that occurs in college.

Limitations and Future Research

While the results of this study contribute to the limited research base about the services students with visual impairment receive at institutions of higher education, there are some limitations. This study utilized a convenience sample from only a few states and the sample size was small. Therefore, generalization of findings should be made with caution. Recommendations for teachers of the visually impaired and DSS offices cannot be assumed to apply across a variety of settings. Another limitation is that we did not attempt to measure participants’ expectations of DSS offices or services in the transition context, meaning the differences between K-12 services and those in higher education. An extension of this study to further investigate the services provided to students who are blind or visually impaired from the DSS perspective might incorporate some of the insights about research methodology that emerged from this study. In addition, the participants in this study represented a diverse group of learners: undergraduate and graduate students, students who were enrolled in either online or on-campus courses and programs, and students with low vision and blindness. Use of a purposeful sample that targets a more homogenous group is recommended to increase reliability in a future study.

Conclusion

Because disability support services are required at every university in the United States, as per the Americans with Disabilities Act, it is important to continually examine the needs of students who qualify for these services and for DSS offices to evolve to meet the needs of different disability groups including those with visual impairments. This study sought to find out these needs by interviewing college students with visual impairments about their experiences. It was particularly concerning how many students said that they couldn’t think of anything good about their experiences with DSS. There were some interesting findings such as smaller colleges provided better services and the link between how offices function and student disclosure of disability. It is clear that students with visual impairment need to work together with DSS to find solutions to classroom-based accessibility issues. In order to do this, students must have basic skills to be successful in post-secondary settings. High schools seem to be doing a good job with preparing students in many areas, but the areas of social skills and self-advocacy need to be emphasized as these skills seem to be the most important in having a successful experience in higher education for those with visual impairments.

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