Canes, Canines, and Choice: An Investigation of Guide Dog and Cane Use in 2021 and Beyond
By Arielle Michal Silverman, Bia B. Amorosino, Elizabeth Bolander, and Theresa Stern
Arielle Michal Silverman is the director of research at the American Foundation for the Blind.
Bia B. Amorosino is a graduate student in intellectual disabilities and autism at Columbia University.
Elizabeth Bolander is a teacher of students with visual impairments in Albuquerque, New Mexico specializing in research topics related to disability.
Theresa Stern is now retired from serving as the vice-president of outreach, admissions, and alumni services at Guide Dogs for the Blind.
Abstract
Guide dogs have historically offered mobility support and companionship to some adults who are blind or have low vision. The choice to use a guide dog or a cane as one’s primary travel tool is deeply personal and complex, with advantages and disadvantages to both methods of travel. In this study, we report qualitative findings from guide dog users and cane users living in the United States and Canada, with a focus on the perceived benefits and challenges of guide dog travel. The findings demonstrate that recent trends in travel may impact current and future patterns related to guide dog usage. Implications for research and practice in travel instruction are discussed.
Keywords
Guide dogs, orientation and mobility, cane travel
Introduction
According to one guide dog user interviewed for this study:
I've had four dogs now because I like the way that a dog travels, as opposed to a cane. There's not a need to do as much tactile interpretation of your environment with a dog. You just go. It's a lot faster, and I think smoother, at least in my experience.
According to one cane user interviewed for this study:
I mean the cane is obstacle detection, right? And then it seems that the guide dog is obstacle avoider. So it's just a different type of travel. I think there's benefits and cons to both. It looks like a lot of work to me to have a guide dog. I mean, that's a lot of responsibility. Like my cane doesn't poop, right. And people don't typically make goofy sounds at my cane or try to get its attention. … [A guide dog] seems like a good way of traveling, but I think the work of it and the extra attention you get from the public outweighs the benefit for me, personally.
Mobility aids play an essential role in the daily lives of people who are blind or who have low vision. At its core, a mobility aid is a tool that provides its user with nonvisual information about their surroundings, including awareness of obstacles, terrain, and landmarks, that the user acts upon as part of safe, efficient, and independent travel.
Although the long white cane is an indispensable mobility aid, which facilitates both practical and emotional adjustment to blindness or low vision (Hill, 1997; Salisbury, 2020), a minority of blind and low-vision individuals use guide dogs as a mobility aid in place of or in addition to a long white cane. A guide dog is a domestic dog that is trained to provide mobility assistance to a blind or low-vision owner (Craigon et al., 2017). Most guide dogs are descendants of Labrador retrievers and golden retrievers, although occasionally other breeds can serve as guide dogs. A guide dog undergoes approximately 2 years of training, including general obedience training followed by specialized instruction in travel settings, before being matched with a blind handler (Wei et al., 2014). A guide dog provides nonvisual feedback to its handler through a harness, thereby facilitating safe and efficient mobility.
According to the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF), the first systematic attempt to train a dog to help a blind person was in 1780 at a hospital in Paris, France. In 1916, a German doctor named Dr. Gerhard Stalling discovered that, after leaving a dog with a patient who was blind, the dog showed signs of assisting the blind patient. In the subsequent decades, guide dog schools were created in Europe and the United States to assist people who had become blind during World War I and, later, World War II. There is a dearth of current data regarding the prevalence of guide dog use due to the decentralization of guide dog schools and differing definitions of blindness and visual impairment within and across countries. However, the IGDF reported that there were 22,939 guide dogs working with handlers internationally as of December 31, 2021 (International Guide Dog Federation, 2023).
Similar to a long white cane, a guide dog provides nonvisual feedback, which allows a blind handler to travel safely. However, unlike a long white cane, a guide dog can intelligently anticipate and move around obstacles, crowds, and other travel impediments. Guide dogs also provide emotional support that cannot be provided by long white canes or other nonliving mobility tools.
In a study by Glenk et al. (2019) assessing how guide dogs impact handlers' self-perceived quality of life (QOL), the researchers distributed an online questionnaire to blind individuals with and without a guide dog. Results showed that those who owned a guide dog believed that traveling with a guide dog is faster and safer than traveling with a cane, that the guide dog boosts independence and social opportunities, and that guide dog travel increases the owner’s physical activity. Although the results showed no significant difference in QOL between guide dog and non-guide dog owners, guide dog owners subjectively believed that owning a guide dog increased their QOL, and had a stronger belief in the positive side of guide dog ownership, whereas non-guide dog owners did not believe that guide dogs would impact their QOL. In a second study, Yamamoto et al. (2015) found that guide dog owners reported relatively high levels of daily physical activity. The guide dog owners in this study reported walking an average of 2 hours per day, significantly surpassing the commonly recommended 150 minutes of moderate physical activity per week. Other researchers have emphasized the psychosocial benefits of guide dogs from the perspectives of guide dog handlers (Koda et al., 2011; Lloyd et al., 2021).
Despite these advantages, a minority of blind and low-vision adults use guide dogs. Most guide dog schools have minimum eligibility criteria that individuals must meet in order to be trained with and receive a guide dog. Common criteria across guide dog schools include being legally blind, being confident in one's orientation and mobility skills without a guide dog (such as using a cane and having good navigation skills), being able to navigate three or more routes independently, and having the ability to care for and provide for a young and active dog. Generally, guide dog applicants must have received orientation and mobility (O&M) training before receiving a guide dog (Goldschmidt, 2018; Milligan, 1999), and such training can be difficult to obtain (Franck et al., 2011). Additionally, many guide dog schools have a minimum age for eligibility, which is often 16 or 18 years old, although some schools, such as the Mira Foundation, allow children as young as 11 years old to receive guide dogs (Mira Foundation, n.d.). Some other programs, such as Guide Dogs for the Blind Inc., do not have an upper or lower age limit, but applicants must meet a series of qualifying criteria that help determine an individual's readiness for a guide dog partnership (Guide Dogs for the Blind, 2023).
For those who qualify for and choose to work with a guide dog, challenges still remain. One of the most heavily studied challenges of guide dog ownership is the emotional impact of the ending of a guide dog partnership. Guide dogs often retire after 6 to 8 years of work, if not earlier due to a health condition (Hausser et al., 2014). Therefore, the handler must decide if they wish to move onto another guide dog right away, take a break, or stop using guide dogs altogether. In a survey of guide dog users who had recently ended a guide dog partnership, Nicholson et al. (1995) found that participants reported the most distressing experiences if the guide dog passed away or moved to a different home after retirement, if the partnership ended abruptly, if it was the end of the owner's first partnership, or if there was a poor relationship with the association where the dog was trained. Furthermore, the end of a partnership can also lead to reduced mobility and severe psychological consequences for the handler due to feelings of bereavement and loss of self-esteem (Lloyd et al., 2021). Besides the emotional impact of the loss of a guide dog, other disadvantages of guide dog ownership may include financial impacts and changes in social relationships (Wiggett-Barnard & Steel, 2008). Furthermore, the white cane offers auditory feedback in addition to tactile feedback, an advantage that guide dogs do not offer (Due & Lange, 2018).
The Current Study
This study consisted of focus groups and interviews with both guide dog users and cane users to better understand the advantages and disadvantages of each type of mobility aid and factors that can influence individuals to choose a cane or a guide dog. In addition, information was gathered about the means by which both guide dog users and cane users travel, including use of transit, drivers, and walking, as well as use of technology during travel, which can bear on a person’s choice to use a cane or a guide dog.
Method
We conducted focus groups and interviews with guide dog users and cane users between July and November 2021. A total of 28 guide dog users and eight cane users participated in the focus groups, while three guide dog users and one cane user participated in individual interviews (due to scheduling preferences).
The focus groups and interviews were conducted remotely via the videoconferencing platform Zoom. The researchers asked the participants a series of questions about their travel methods. Guide dog users were asked about their decision to get a guide dog and their process of choosing a school, their experiences during training, and the benefits and challenges of working with a guide dog. Examples of questions included “Based on your experience, what are the pros and cons of traveling with a guide dog?” and “How do you navigate educating the public about your guide dog?” Cane users were asked about their exposure to the guide dog lifestyle, whether or not they would consider getting a guide dog, and the factors that could influence their decision. The focus groups and interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for analysis. Two researchers reviewed the transcripts and identified common themes and subthemes.
Results
Travel Methods and Tools
All participants were asked about the methods and tools they use to travel. Themes that emerged on this topic included (1) participants using multiple forms of transit in their daily lives, (2) a trend toward less walking and greater usage of rideshare services, (3) frequent use of smartphone applications during travel, and (4) mixed attitudes toward the white cane.
Multiple Forms of Transit
The focus group participants generally described using multiple transit methods to travel in their communities, depending on the destination, time constraints, and other factors. Frequently cited transit methods included local buses, subways, paratransit services, rideshare, long-distance train travel, and air travel. One participant said:
[I use] basically everything. I walk, I take the bus, take the subway, I take commuter trains. I take paratransit and I take ride shares, depending on where I'm going and what the circumstances are and how I want to get there.
Reduced Walking
Although many focus group participants walk from place to place or use public transit to travel, there was a general trend for participants to describe walking less often or for shorter distances in recent years than they had in the past, or using rideshare services or rides from friends and family more often than they had in the past. Broader trends related to the COVID-19 pandemic, increased teleworking, and the ready availability of rideshare services, like Uber and Lyft, all contributed to these trends. According to one participant:
My life is much more boring and sedentary. I go to work every day and I do social things, but that's about it. I'm not going point A to point B to point C to point D back to point A all in one day anymore.”
Regarding the pandemic specifically, a guide dog user added:
During COVID, I think it was harder, of course, because I wasn't going to work every day. For me and the dog, where we had to force ourselves to go on walks and things like that … I felt bad for the dog.
Technology in Travel
When asked if they use technology while traveling, most focus group participants (both guide dog users and cane users) mentioned at least one app they used, either to plan routes ahead of time or to troubleshoot while traveling. The apps fell into two major categories: GPS or wayfinding apps and visual interpreter apps, like AIRA or Be My Eyes. Participants typically used wayfinding apps in advance of traveling or to locate landmarks during travel, while they used visual interpreter apps to troubleshoot if they experienced difficulties during travel. For example, one participant said:
When I'm trying to find a new location, I use Aira a lot to find new destinations and things like that. I also use just the basic Maps app on my iPhone. I use that a lot to find what's around me. Just today, I had a doctor's appointment and then wanted to know what was around me to orient myself and find something. And I just pulled it up on my phone and used it. So I'd say the Maps app on my iPhone and Aira are the two biggest ones I use a lot.
Mixed Attitudes Toward the White Cane
The focus group participants who chose to travel exclusively with a white cane expressed generally positive views toward their canes. Attitudes were more mixed among the guide dog users. Some guide dog users expressed frustration with the limitations of the white cane or a perception that people who use guide dogs are regarded more positively by members of the public than people who use white canes, as will be described in a later section. However, others communicated that the white cane was an invaluable travel tool to have in their toolbox even as guide dog users. Some participants described using a cane to travel to environments that were not conducive to having a guide dog, or to help troubleshoot routes or learn new routes before traveling in those areas with a guide dog. For example, one participant explained:
Last winter, when the snow got really bad, I had someone from my guide dog school come out and they actually recommended that I use my cane in conjunction with my dog to be able to measure the height of snow banks to see how dangerous they were to cross through. So in that instance, I did actually use my cane in conjunction with my dog to try to measure the height of the snow and to figure out where it would be safe to cross and where it was a little bit too risky.
Reasons to Seek a Guide Dog
When asked why they first chose to get a guide dog, participants cited a variety of reasons. These included observing a role model (such as a friend or instructor) who was a guide dog user; receiving advice from an O&M professional who encouraged them to consider a guide dog; or desiring greater independence, travel efficiency, or safety. Several participants obtained their first guide dog during the lead-up to a major life transition, such as starting college or moving to a more urban location. Many of the guide dog users also reported that they were lifelong animal lovers. For example, one participant said:
I got my first dog when I turned 18, and went off to college. And it was just the thing everyone told me to do. Go get a dog. I had several role models in the blindness community who also had dogs. And it looked like a great experience. And, of course, being an animal lover, I was super interested in that as well.
Although most participants said they sought a guide dog to obtain the positive benefits of having a guide dog, a few participants shared wanting to use a guide dog because they disliked using a cane or because they believed using a guide dog was considered more socially acceptable. A participant explained:
One of my best friends got a dog, and I thought at the time that people were a lot more accepting of her blindness because the dog wasn't such a stigma like maybe the white cane can be. I actually have changed my perspective on that, but that was kind of what led me initially to get a dog.
Benefits of Guide Dogs
The guide dog users in this study agreed that having a guide dog benefited their ability to travel independently, confidently, and efficiently from one place to another. Specific benefits mentioned included enhanced ability to maintain a straight line of travel, the ability to weave through crowds efficiently, obstacle avoidance, and route recall. Some participants with additional disabilities, such as hearing impairments or physical disabilities, explained that a guide dog assisted with balance or compensated for missing auditory information when crossing streets.
In addition to the practical benefits of guide dog travel, a number of guide dog users emphasized the emotional support that their guides offer. They described travel with a guide dog as fun, boosting confidence, and bringing a sense of companionship. According to one participant:
I had confidence as a cane user but the dog enhances it. It’s a lot of work to get a guide dog especially when you retire one and get another. But ultimately it’s worth it. You’re never alone when you’re traveling.
Another added, “You're never really traveling alone. I know that makes me more comfortable and confident. And just to know that my dog is there to back me up.”
Finally, some guide dog users felt that having a guide dog helped facilitate positive social interactions and that the dog fit in well within their human social networks. However, the social impacts of having a guide dog were mixed, as having a guide dog sometimes brought unwanted public attention, as will be described in the next section.
Guide dog users who participated in the focus groups generally expressed satisfaction with their choice to use a guide dog, and many had worked with multiple guide dogs over their lifetime. Specifically, of the 31 guide dog users who participated, 16 have had at least two guide dogs, and 10 have had at least three guide dogs.
Challenges of Guide Dog Use
Although it was clear that the guide dog users in this study derived benefits from working with guide dogs, a number of challenges were also mentioned. These challenges were identified by the guide dog users and were also identified as reasons the cane users chose to delay or forgo getting a guide dog. Some of these challenges represent the diversity of preferences in the community regarding the perceived pros and cons of using a guide dog. Other challenges, however, can be mitigated through advocacy and public education.
Responsibility and Commitment
Owning a guide dog requires daily caregiving, an initial commitment of time to train with the dog, and, unless offset by the school, ongoing expenses for food and veterinary care. A longtime guide dog user explained the possible barriers that might dissuade others from getting a guide dog:
I think a lot of people just frankly don't want the responsibility of a dog. Canes don't require any care. You don't have to take them out. You don't have to feed them. They don't cost a lot of money, all that stuff, and dogs do. I think some people just prefer a cane over a dog.
A participant who did not choose to use a guide dog simply added, “Dogs are awesome, but I’m not a big dog person.”
Several of the participants who did not use guide dogs also cited the responsibilities of dog care as a key reason for their decision. This was especially true for participants who had other significant caregiving responsibilities. One participant, a parent of young children, explained, “My kids still have a lot of high needs and I couldn't see myself adding another being to care for on top of that.”
Lifestyle and Neighborhood Factors
As described earlier, the participants demonstrated a general trend of walking less often and for shorter distances than they had in the past. It was emphasized that guide dogs and their handlers must engage in regular walking in order to maintain the dog’s skills and meet the dog’s need for physical activity. In fact, some participants described situations in which they or people they knew were not accepted for guide dog training because they did not meet the requirements for regular travel on foot. One participant shared:
I had a couple of interviews [with guide dog schools], and in one interview, I got denied … I was walking to the train every day and then catching the train in and walking to wherever I had to walk to. It wasn't enough walking. I thought it was plenty. It was about three miles a day.
Another participant, who did not use a guide dog, stated that she was very interested in getting a guide dog, but she could not do so because she lived in an area that was not very walkable.
Access Denials
The topic of service access denials was raised in nearly every focus group of guide dog users during this study. Service denials on the Uber and Lyft platforms were an especially common experience that complicated the daily lives of guide dog users and prevented them from traveling freely in their communities. One guide dog user explained, “Instead of my dog, honestly, because of rideshare denials, you know, I'll find myself deciding to use my cane instead of my dog, just because I'm taking rideshare.”
Some guide dog users also mentioned service denials by businesses, particularly restaurants or by churches. Finally, guide dog users reported frustrations with new paperwork requirements put in place by airlines, and, in particular, they expressed frustration with fake service animal owners whose actions have inspired increased scrutiny for legitimate guide dog users when traveling. For example: “So much paperwork if you want to take them [guide dogs] abroad. Now with traveling, the people have their so-called therapy dogs, we have to deal with that now.”
Challenging Interactions With the Public
In addition to the need for advocacy with rideshare and businesses, guide dog users also described periodically needing to educate members of the public on appropriate ways of interacting with them and their guide dogs. The most commonly cited challenges included strangers petting or talking to their dogs while the dog was in harness, as well as people either overestimating or underestimating how much the dog can assist the handler. The focus group participants generally agreed that they were happy to explain how their guide dog helps them, especially to children, if they had the time to do so in the moment. However, participants also reported needing to be firm in advocating for their safety when strangers gave attention that interfered with the dog’s work. A participant said:
It really depends on my mood. If I've had a hard day and the dog's been petted one too many times … I'm not very nice, I'll just admit it. But I tend to have this rule where, if someone's under the age of two, they don't understand. And if they're over the age of 80, I give them grace. But between three and 79, that's an appropriate age range so they should know and learn the rules.
Another participant added:
If the public wants to be educated, then I'm more than happy to explain anything that needs to be explained. Oftentimes where I do it very poorly is when the public clearly has their mind set on the way things are and they have no desire to be educated.
In addition to educating and advocating with strangers, some guide dog users also reported challenges helping family and friends to fully understand what the guide dog does and how to best interact with them and their guide dog. As one participant summarized, “I have two rules for my family: You better keep up with my 36-inch legs. And don’t ask me silly questions.”
Finally, concerns about unwanted public attention and the complications of having a dog (such as dealing with dog hair) were cited as another reason for some individuals to choose to use a cane instead of a guide dog. A participant explained:
It's hard enough as a blind person to keep myself looking professional when I'm going out in the world, and making sure everything matches and [is] color coordinated, I don't want to worry about the variables that a dog can introduce, like shedding and dog hair or drool spots or just stuff that makes dogs, dogs, and you can't blame the dog because that's how dogs are.
Of the nine cane users who participated in the study, five were confident that they wanted to continue using a cane instead of a guide dog, three were ambivalent, and one was planning to seek a guide dog in the near future.
Discussion
In this qualitative study, participants described the advantages and disadvantages of traveling with guide dogs. Many of these advantages and disadvantages mirrored those found in prior studies, particularly the emotional benefits guide dogs can offer. The challenges of guide dog retirement were not as prominent in this study as in prior studies, although they were mentioned and are certainly part of the guide dog user experience. Additionally, participants in this study had more mixed impressions on the social impact of having a guide dog. Although some social benefits were mentioned, the challenges of negotiating relationships and interacting with the public as a guide dog user were also prominent. Participants in this study described some challenges of guide dog travel that can be mitigated with collective advocacy and public education efforts, particularly the problem of access denials. Such efforts will ensure that blind individuals can freely choose to use a guide dog or a cane in public.
It is critical to note that both guide dog users and cane users in this study expressed satisfaction with their choice of mobility aid. While the guide dog users often linked having a guide dog with high quality of life, the cane users in this study were equally confident that they were achieving a high quality of life without a guide dog. This finding underscores the importance of supporting individuals’ autonomy when choosing the mobility aid that best fits their needs and lifestyle preferences.
Additionally, this study identified some important patterns related to the ways in which blind and low-vision people travel. It was evident from participants’ responses that people are walking less and using rideshare or private drivers more than they have in the past, at least in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Future research is needed to track the evolution of travel patterns in the years following the pandemic. Additionally, wayfinding apps on smartphones have become important tools in the toolboxes of many blind and low-vision travelers, just as they are for many sighted travelers. These apps do not replace the use of a cane or guide dog but they can offer beneficial orientation cues that complement the essential mobility cues provided by canes and guide dogs. Visual interpretation apps can also provide additional orientation cues, particularly for troubleshooting. New and evolving technologies will likely continue to influence how blind and low-vision people travel, just as they do for sighted people. However, these technologies cannot replace the foundational skills of O&M and the use of mobility aids, namely long white canes and guide dogs.
Implications for Practitioners
The choice to use a guide dog or a long white cane is a deeply personal one. Orientation and Mobility instructors can support their clients’ decision-making process by understanding the complex factors that may motivate individuals to choose or not choose the guide dog lifestyle. O&M instructors can benefit from developing relationships with diverse guide dog users and guide dog user groups, as well as guide dog schools, to maintain updated knowledge about guide dogs and to educate accurately and support their clients in deciding whether or not to seek a guide dog. O&M instructors also play an important role by assessing and supporting clients who desire a guide dog to develop their O&M readiness so they can qualify for a guide dog and become responsible guide dog handlers. Finally, O&M professionals may wish to learn about the role of emerging technologies in travel and assist clients in utilizing beneficial technologies, such as wayfinding apps, while still maintaining and using their core travel skills.
Implications for Future Research
A limitation of the current study is that it did not include former guide dog users who had chosen to switch from a guide dog to a cane. Research with these individuals could provide clearer data on experiences with both types of mobility aids from people who have lived experience using both a cane and a guide dog. Another important area of research surrounds the potential lasting impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on people’s travel behavior. In the coming years, research will be useful to improve the understanding of what methods people use to travel, including those who are blind or have low vision. The pandemic and post-pandemic life may also impact the ways in which blind and low-vision travelers interact with guide dogs, canes, and other mobility tools. For example, if many people continue to work remotely even after the pandemic, some guide dog users may no longer maintain the level of regular physical activity needed to meet a guide dog’s needs, or they may choose to switch from a guide dog to a cane. Research centering the lived experiences of guide dog users and cane users will help practitioners understand how best to support blind and low-vision persons toward meeting their goals for safe, efficient, and independent travel.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by Guide Dogs for the Blind, Inc., a nonprofit 501(c)(3) public charity headquartered in the United States.
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Table 1
Participant Demographics
Variable |
GD users (n) |
GD users % |
Cane users (n) |
Cane users % |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age group |
|||||
18–25 years |
5 |
16% |
3 |
33% |
|
26–35 years |
12 |
39% |
4 |
44% |
|
36–45 years |
4 |
13% |
2 |
22% |
|
46–55 years |
3 |
10% |
0 |
0% |
|
56 years and older |
7 |
23% |
0 |
0% |
|
Gender identity |
|||||
Cisgender female/woman |
25 |
81% |
7 |
78% |
|
Cisgender male/man |
7 |
23% |
2 |
22% |
|
Race/ethnicity |
0% |
||||
White |
18 |
58% |
6 |
67% |
|
Asian |
3 |
10% |
3 |
33% |
|
Hispanic |
3 |
10% |
0 |
0% |
|
Black/African American |
1 |
3% |
|||
Two or more races |
2 |
6% |
0 |
0% |
|
Other |
1 |
3% |
0 |
0% |
|
Declined to answer |
3 |
10% |
0 |
0% |
|
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