Access to Math and Science Content for Youth Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired
By Edward C. Bell, Ph.D., and Arielle M. Silverman, Ph.D.
Edward C. Bell, Ph.D., is the director of the Professional Development and Research Institute on Blindness at Louisiana Tech University.
Arielle Michal Silverman, Ph.D., is the founder and principal consultant of Disability Wisdom Consulting in Silver Spring, Maryland.
Abstract
Youth between the ages of 10-18 were surveyed during the Fall of 2016 related to their experiences of accessing math and science-related content in schools. Youth shared the most common methods currently used to access these materials in class and the various combinations of low-tech and high-tech solutions at their disposal, including print, braille, and various means for performing calculations. While the vast majority of youth reported having a Teacher of the Visually Impaired or aid who helped them with math and science work, 82% reported having trouble accessing information that teachers put on the board most of the time or occasionally. Youth were overall positive about their desire to learn math and science in school. However, they also reported that factors such as receiving their materials later than classmates, not having visual concepts adequately explained, and classroom teacher's general lack of comfort while working with these youth were all cited as deterrents to learning.
Keywords
Access Barriers, science, math, computer-based assignments, blind, visually impaired
Acknowledgements
This research was made possible with the funding and collaboration of Pearson Assessments.
Every day, students with disabilities are facing access barriers when it comes to education. This is true in all areas of academia, but it is especially true when it comes to the math and science fields. When discussing the access barriers present in math and science for the blind, people often point to the inherently visual nature of these fields. Although the visual aspects of math and science instruction do present complications for blind and visually impaired students, there are many more barriers that prevent blind students from accessing math and science curriculum in schools. These access barriers lead to very low numbers of blind and visually impaired people who are pursuing math and science-related degrees in higher education or employed in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields (National Federation of the Blind (NFB), 2009). Access barriers include lack of accommodations for students, inaccessible curricular materials, and lack of knowledge by teaching professionals about how to teach blind and visually impaired students. All of these problems lead to poorly educated blind students with limited prospects for employment (NFB, 2009).
Access Barriers
The first impediment to math and science accessibility for the blind is the typically visual nature of instruction in these fields. Teachers often use visual techniques to teach mathematical and scientific concepts (Jitngernmadan, Stöger, Petz, & Miesenberger, 2017). These techniques obviously exclude blind and visually impaired students. They also may discourage the students about the feasibility of taking courses in these areas of study. Also, spatial reasoning can be difficult for people who are blind, and this type of reasoning is necessary for comprehension of certain math and science-related concepts (Smith & Smothers, 2012). Another problem blind students face that their sighted peers do not is the idea of incidental learning (Zebehazy, Zigmond, & Zimmerman, 2012). This is the idea that sighted children learn certain things solely through daily observation, while a blind child would have to be shown these concepts in a different way that does not require vision (Zebehazy et al., 2012). For example, a sighted child might have a basic understanding of the phases of the moon based on seeing it change throughout the month. A blind child, however, would have to be shown these changes with a tactile graphic or someone would have to explain things to them. This type of learning could cause a blind student to lag behind their sighted peers. Some researchers also believe that math creates cognitive difficulties for blind students (Jitngernmadan et al., 2017). The fact that they cannot visually scan graphics and spatial arrangements may create a heavier cognitive load making it more difficult for them to process information as quickly as their peers (Jitngernmadan et al., 2017).
The visual nature of typical math and science instruction may cause people to assume that it is impossible for blind students. Some even think that blind and visually impaired students have cognitive impairments that inhibit them from learning these concepts (Klingenberg, Fosse, & Augestad, 2012). Although there are some blind people with cognitive deficits, this is not true of all blind individuals (Klingenberg et al 2012). These misperceptions may also create access barriers for blind students who are completing math and science courses. However, this is far from the only problem this population faces when it comes to accessing math and science curriculum.
One of the biggest problems blind students have when accessing math and science curriculum is the lack of accommodations provided to them. One way in which this frequently occurs is that students are not given equal access to math textbooks (NFB, 2009). Often blind students receive textbooks with numerous errors and omissions (Smith, 2006). When students receive books with these inaccuracies, they are not receiving the same materials as their sighted peers. This could negatively affect their learning, making it harder for them to understand materials through no fault of their own. The presence of Nemeth errors in worksheets also presents a problem for blind students (Herzberg & Rosenblum, 2014). Sometimes students receive textbooks later than their sighted peers as well, this obviously would cause delays in learning, exacerbating the other difficulties these students face when it comes to accessing math and science materials (Smith & Smothers, 2012).
One aspect of math and science which is very necessary, but sometimes creates challenges, is tactile graphics (Smith & Smothers, 2012). These graphics are sometimes unequal to their print counterparts in their portrayal. For example, in some graphical representations of data points, the data points are not depicted on the tactile graph in the same way they are shown in print (Smith & Smothers, 2012). These discrepancies could cause students to misread or misunderstand the information depicted. Also, one study showed that worksheets with tactile graphics are not formatted or labeled in a consistent manner. This could cause students to take longer when navigating through worksheets and could make math seem more tedious or difficult (Herzberg & Rosenblum, 2014). Some tactile graphics are even omitted from textbooks (Smith & Smothers, 2012). This causes inequalities in the information being received between blind and sighted students.
The way in which accommodations are provided to blind students may also cause a problem. One study on an alternate performance assessment for students with multiple disabilities showed that an accommodation might change the validity of an assessment (Zebehazy et al., 2012). This means that when accommodations are being made for students it may affect the educational efficacy of the material. This shows that accommodations need to be provided with consideration of how they will affect the students’ learning process.
Another access barrier faced by blind youth is the way in which science is taught to them. Often blind students are not allowed to independently complete experiments (Supalo, Isaacson, & Lombardi, 2014). They are paired with a sighted partner who they direct to complete the experiment. They tell their partner what steps to complete and they take down notes about what is happening (Supalo et al., 2014). Although this gives blind students an understanding of the procedure of the experiment, it does not teach them how to execute said experiment (Supalo et al., 2014). This does not allow them to further pursue higher education or future careers in science.
Students also are tasked with working with teachers that may feel underprepared or intimidated by teaching math and science skills. One study showed that some teachers did not feel well equipped to teach Nemeth to their students, especially at a higher level (Herzberg & Rosenblum, 2014). Some teachers of blind and visually impaired students may also feel uncertain or intimidated about how to provide accommodations to students when it comes to science (Supalo et al., 2014). One study showed that teachers realize the importance of providing these accommodations but do not know how to go about providing them (Hawley, Cardoso, & McMahon, 2013).
A lack of communication between general education and special education teachers may also be occurring. This adds to the lack of knowledge of general education teachers. This intimidation and under preparedness may ultimately affect students, causing their education to suffer and accommodations not to be provided to them.
Consequences of Access Barriers
These access barriers are causing an education gap between blind and visually impaired students and their sighted peers. One study stated that 70% of blind children are at least a grade level behind where they should be in math, and of that 70%, 20% were at least five grade levels behind (Gulley, Smith, Price, Prickett, & Ragland, 2017). These statistics illustrate how access barriers can set blind students back and be very damaging to their education.
This lack of access to math and science curriculum may cause blind people to have unfavorable attitudes regarding their possibilities for success in STEM-related careers. These poor attitudes may cause very few blind people to enter into STEM-related pursuits. People who are blind and visually impaired already are faced with significant challenges when it comes to gaining employment, and the access barriers they face to math and science curriculum only add to these challenges. There is also a deficit of research about blind people’s presence in the STEM fields, but there are some findings that illustrate their under-representation in these areas. For example, there are significantly fewer people with disabilities who earn a Ph.D. in STEM fields, as well as fewer people with disabilities employed in these careers (Supalo et al., 2014). In one study, out of 69% of blind students who found science interesting, 8% said they would seek a degree in the sciences in college (Supalo et al., 2014). This may be due to a lack of hands-on experience in science. The same study mentioned above showed that the lack of hands-on experiences in STEM fields afforded to blind people may lead to lower belief in their capability to succeed in these areas (Supalo et al., 2014). These numbers illustrate not only the underrepresentation of blind and visually impaired students, but also show us the possible misperceptions these students may hold about their capabilities for success in this field.
As illustrated above, blind and visually impaired students face numerous barriers when it comes to curriculum access. They are not given appropriate accommodations, not allowed to participate in certain class activities, and sometimes their educators feel underprepared to teach them necessary materials. These factors combined cause blind students to have misperceptions about their ability to succeed in these fields and, therefore, cause them not to pursue these types of careers. These access barriers can be avoided, however, if proper accommodations are provided and general and special education teachers work together. The access barriers students face are numerous, but they can be overcome with the proper knowledge and accommodations.
The Current Study
For this study, youth were surveyed during the Fall of 2016 to learn about their experiences in school with math and science content and factors that facilitated or impeded their access to classroom assignments.
Research Questions
RQ1: What methods do youth use to access math and science curriculum in school currently?
RQ2: What supports from family and school exist to facilitate access to math and science content?
RQ3: What barriers do youth perceive are impediments to accessing math and science content?
RQ4: What suggestions do youth have for improving access to math and science?
Methods
We recruited participants by sending invitations to groups containing parents and teachers of blind children. Parents were invited to click a link where they read about the purpose of the study and provided written consent for their child to participate (by typing their name in a box). The parents were then invited to share the survey link with their children. Although the recruitment materials targeted blind students between the ages of 13 and 18, we included all valid survey responses received, including those from students ages 9-12 as well as from students ages 13-18. The study and recruitment procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board at Louisiana Tech University.
Participants
Seventy-one individuals between the ages of 9 and 18 began the survey and provided demographic details. However, 22 of these individuals dropped out before answering any of the questions relevant to this study, which were in the latter half of the survey. Therefore, our final sample includes the 49 individuals who completed questions about methods of accessing math and science assignments, supports and accommodations they received from adults, and access barriers.
The individuals who dropped out were younger on average than those who completed the survey; the 22 youth who dropped out had an average age of 13.71 years (SD = 2.94, Range = 9-18) while the average age of the 49 youth retained in the final sample was 14.98 years (SD = 2.39, Range = 10-18). The final sample was comprised of 29 females (59%) and 20 males (41%), who resided in 28 U.S. states (AL, AZ, CA, CO, FL, IA, IL, IN, LA, MD, MI, MN, MO, NC, NJ, NV, NY, OH, OR, PA, SD, TX, UT, VA, VT, WA, WI, and WV) and one participant who was from British Columbia, Canada.
These youth were 26 White or Caucasian (53%), seven Asian American (14%), seven Hispanic, Latino (14%), one Native American, Alaska Native (2%), three black or African American (6%), three who said Other (6%), and two who preferred Not to Answer (4%).
Youth were asked what grade they were currently in; five were in elementary school grades 4 or 5 (10%), nine were in middle school grades 6-8 (18%), and 35 were high school grades 9-12 (71%).
Procedures
Youth completed an online survey between November and December 2016. The overall survey included questions regarding demographics, interest in math and science subjects, familiarity with braille math, availability of accommodations, mentorship, and access to digital math platforms and career aspirations. For this paper, we summarize participants’ responses to questions about their methods for accessing math and science in school, support that they receive, and accessibility challenges that they reported.
First, youth were asked to check off the methods that they use to read math and science materials, complete homework, and take tests in class. The youth were also asked to describe the type of calculator that they use most often.
Next, youth were asked about the supports and accommodations they receive from adults in their math and science classes. They were asked to check off the type(s) of support that they receive from a teacher of the visually impaired (TVI), how often they receive support from a paraprofessional, and how often they receive support from family members in completing math and science homework.
Then, youth were asked how often they encounter several accessibility barriers in their math and science classes. These included difficulties reading problems written on the chalkboard, teachers not describing visual content, delays in getting accessible materials, and challenges accessing computer-based assignments.
Finally, the youth answered open-ended questions including three critical questions about feedback they would provide to educators and software developers: (1) “What do you wish your math and science teachers would do to help you learn better?” (2) “What is one thing you want teachers to know about blind and visually impaired students?” and (3) “If you could tell software and website developers what you would need in order to access content, what would you tell them?”
Results
Methods for Accomplishing Math Work
Tables 1(a) through 1(c) show the number and percentage of youth who reported using each method for reading math and science materials, completing homework, and taking tests. A large percentage of youth reported using paper-based methods for homework and test-taking, although about one-fourth of the youth stated that they use a braille notetaker with Nemeth code for homework completion, and some youth reported using computers or mobile devices to complete homework.
Table 1(a): Methods for Reading Math and Science Materials
Method |
Number |
% |
Braille on paper |
9 |
19.15 |
Print with screen magnification on a computer or mobile device |
6 |
12.77 |
Refreshable braille from a notetaker |
5 |
10.64 |
Listen using a screen reader |
4 |
8.51 |
Use both screen magnification and screen reader |
3 |
6.38 |
Large print on paper |
2 |
4.26 |
Refreshable braille with a computer or mobile device |
1 |
2.13 |
Other/multiple methods |
17 |
36.17 |
Table 1(b): Methods for Completing Math Homework
Method |
Number |
% |
I write in print using a pen and paper |
20 |
42.55 |
I write in Nemeth code on a braille notetaker such as a Braille Note |
11 |
23.40 |
I dictate my answers to someone who writes them down for me |
11 |
23.40 |
I write in Nemeth code using a slate and stylus or a Perkins Brailler |
10 |
21.28 |
I write on a computer or iPhone, or iPad using a screen reader |
8 |
17.02 |
I write on a braille notetaker in my own code and print it out for my sighted math teacher |
5 |
10.64 |
I write on a computer or iPhone, or iPad using screen magnification |
3 |
6.38 |
I write in UEB using a slate and stylus or a Perkins Brailler |
3 |
6.38 |
Other/multiple methods |
4 |
8.51 |
Table 1(c): Methods for Taking Tests
Method |
Number |
% |
I take my tests in braille and I braille my answers on paper |
18 |
37.50 |
I take my tests using large print, a magnifier or CCTV |
15 |
31.25 |
I take my tests using a braille notetaker such as Braille Note |
8 |
16.67 |
I read my tests in braille and someone writes my answers down |
8 |
16.67 |
I have my tests read to me and the person who read the test also writes my answer down |
7 |
14.58 |
I take my tests on a computer |
6 |
12.50 |
I take my tests in print with no adaptations |
5 |
10.42 |
Other |
9 |
18.75 |
Note: Percentages are based on the total number of participants who answered the question.
In determining what methods were used in making math calculations, the participants used a variety of means. Talking calculators were used most commonly, but a variety of other technologies were described as well. Table 2 provides the method, number, and percent for whom these methods were used.
Table 2: Math Calculations
Method |
Count |
Percent |
I use a talking scientific calculator. |
15 |
31.25 |
I use a talking graphing calculator. |
13 |
27.08 |
I use the scientific calculator on my braille notetaker. |
11 |
22.92 |
I use an abacus. |
10 |
20.83 |
I use a regular basic calculator with no adaptations. |
7 |
14.58 |
I use a regular scientific calculator with no adaptations. |
5 |
10.42 |
I use a large print talking graphing calculator. |
3 |
6.25 |
I use a regular graphing calculator with no adaptations. |
3 |
6.25 |
I use a large print talking scientific calculator. |
3 |
6.25 |
I use a large print talking basic calculator. |
2 |
4.17 |
I use a large print graphing calculator. |
1 |
2.08 |
Other |
8 |
16.67 |
Supports and Accommodations for Math and Science
Of the 47 participants who answered the questions about instruction from a TVI, 38 participants (81%) said that they have a TVI, eight participants (17%) said they did not, and one participant was unsure. Table 3 shows the types of instruction and services that youth reported receiving from their TVIs.
Table 3: TVI Services
Service |
Count |
Percent |
Instruction in Nemeth Code braille |
27 |
62.79 |
Access to manipulatives, or objects you could feel to demonstrate concepts |
22 |
51.16 |
Access to tactile graphics on paper |
22 |
51.16 |
Instruction in use of talking calculators |
18 |
41.86 |
Instruction in use of braille notetakers, such as the Braille Note, for math |
17 |
39.53 |
Transcription of your written work from braille to print |
15 |
34.88 |
Instruction in UEB math braille |
14 |
32.56 |
Instruction in use of low-vision devices for math |
14 |
32.56 |
Access to enlarged graphics on paper |
9 |
20.93 |
Other |
3 |
6.98 |
Of these 47 participants, 22 (47%) said they did not have an aide or paraprofessional help them in class,10 participants (21%) said an aide helps them sometimes, and 15 participants (32%) said an aide helps them all the time or daily.
When asked if family members helped them with math and science homework, 25 participants (54%) said never, seven participants (15%) said once a month, six participants (13%) said once a week, and eight participants (17%) said they received help from family members daily.
Math and Science Access Barriers
Participants were asked how often they encountered two specific access barriers: trouble accessing material written on the blackboard and receiving materials (such as textbooks) later than their classmates. They were also asked, in general, how frequently access problems impacted their ability to learn math and science. The results are summarized in Table 4. A majority of the participants encountered access barriers at least occasionally that impacted their ability to learn math.
Table 4. Frequency of Encountering Math and Science Barriers
Barrier |
Never (n) |
Never (%) |
Some of |
Some of |
Frequently (n) |
Frequently (%) |
Trouble accessing problems written on the board |
7 |
15% |
16 |
34% |
24 |
51% |
Receiving accessible materials late |
5 |
15% |
19 |
54% |
11 |
31% |
Access problems impacting ability to learn |
13 |
28% |
25 |
53% |
9 |
19% |
Participants were asked to elaborate on their math access problems. A sampling of responses includes the following:
- I almost always have a technician (aide) with me and she explains everything the teacher does.
- I had support in all of my math and science classes from my TVI and braille instructor, and they made sure that I always had tactile materials on time.
- When I work in the lab the students and teachers will say that the don't feel comfortable with me using certain materials. Sometimes I am not even allowed to touch the lab supplies. Teachers don't know what to do, so they do nothing. When I try to explain that I can figure it out if someone shows me what to do hands on, they don't listen to me. I have had some people who will let me touch some lab equipment, but they don't really want me to.
Open-Ended Questions
When asked, “What do you wish your math or science teachers would do to help you learn better?” respondents said:
- Giving me a preview of what is coming next would be helpful and possibly explaining a concept before explaining it to the other students.
- Verbally describe pictures or equations or problems better.
- My hands on items
- Math-making sure materials are made available ahead of time Science-making sure materials are made available ahead of time.
- Try to explain things more conceptually than visually.
- QUIT FORGETTING TO ACCOMODATE ME!
When asked, “What is one thing you would want teachers to know about blind and visually impaired students?” respondents said:
- They should know that blind students are totally capable of learning math and science and excelling in those STEM fields.
- They need to do a better job of describing pictures.
- I can do anything a sighted person can do.
- We are just like other kids, except for the fact that we use alternative techniques to learn. If they present things in a nonvisual way, we'll do just as well, if not better, than our sighted peers.
- Sometimes, due to not having our assignments brailled on time, it makes it harder for us to understand the lessons because we do not have what our classmates have in front of them.
- That they don't have to not use words such as see, look, etc. Also, that we are independent and can do a lot on our own and don't need someone "hovering" constantly.
- That we aren't stupid. That we can do labs and learn the information just as well as the sighted students and that if we have the right tools we can compete in the STEM field.
- We aren't all going to be totally blind, but our visual impairment is still valid.
When asked, “If you could tell software and web site developers what you need in order to access content, what would you tell them?” respondents said:
- They should know that the websites and software should have capabilities to use with a refreshable Braille display and speech. They should also code the site so that a blind student can type in answers, read problems in math, and be able to go to the next question without another person who's sighted to do it for them.
- More description!
- A lot of apps do not work with voice over. That's a big problem.
- I need less pop-up, clickable images, and more alt-text descriptions of images, especially images of equations.
- A screen reader that is compatible with all programs.
- Varieties of colors and sizes.
- That they should have a feature that removes graphics and other material by changing the display and make them accessible to screen readers.
- Image descriptions is the biggest thing that people need
- Stop making the pages so "busy".
Discussion
This study provided some insight into some of the common factors cited by blind and visually impaired youth as either facilitating or impeding their access to math and science content. There was a great diversity of methods that youth reported using to access coursework and assignments. This diversity may reflect the mix of visual methods (e.g., large print) and nonvisual methods (e.g., braille displays and screen readers) used by this population. Despite the availability of technology, many youth reported using paper-based methods to complete math assignments in print or braille.
A major finding from this study is that most blind and visually impaired youth still face access barriers in their math and science classes. About 85% of the youth in this sample reported lacking access to work presented on a blackboard, or receiving accessible materials later than their sighted peers, at least some of the time. In open-ended comments, the youth emphasized wanting teachers to understand their capabilities and to provide easier access to math and science content in either tactile format, auditory format, or both.
The above research illustrates the access barriers faced by the blind as well as the consequences of those access barriers. However, there are accommodations that can help blind and visually impaired students be successful in math and science. One way which has been shown to help students be more successful on exams is standardized audio descriptions of images (Ferrell et al., 2017). This would eliminate the variability in quality and layout experienced by students when working with tactile graphics (Ferrell et al., 2017). This is especially true for tests that are given on computers, which is happening more and more frequently as schools tend to use multi-media formats to give exams. However, it would not help those blind students who struggle with spatial relations gain more proficiency with those skills.
One method that may help students acquire spatial relations is incorporating math into their orientation and mobility lessons (Smith, 2006). In orientation and mobility, students learn about things like time and distance and what that feels like in a practical sense. They also learn certain geometric concepts such as angles and what some shapes look like. Incorporating math concepts into these lessons could be very helpful for students (Smith, 2006). Another study noted that being blind does not limit someone’s spatial knowledge if one is given the proper tools (Klingenberg, 2012). This study noted that if given the opportunity to explore large and small objects, blind and visually impaired students were able to gain a good understanding for the shapes and layouts of those objects (Klingenberg, 2012). Students were able to use their bodies as a point of reference to help them understand the size and dimensions of shapes (Klingenberg, 2012).
Technology is another great resource when helping students gain access to math and science. Classroom teachers are utilizing more and more technology and some of this technology is not accessible for blind and visually impaired students. However, more and more accessible technology is being created to help blind youth enjoy the same tools as their sighted peers. For example, one iPad application was created as an accessible equivalent to an inaccessible website used by sighted children. This application paired audible math problems with tactile graphics to allow children to have a similar multi-media experience to their peers. This program was successful in helping students learn basic math concepts, especially those that would eventually prepare them for algebraic thinking. Technologies like these may be key in helping blind students receive equal educations to their peers.
There are various other accommodations that are needed to provide an equal education for blind and visually impaired students. Some researchers are developing mathematical processes for students who have not been given the opportunity to learn Nemeth code (Gulley et al., 2017). These processes allow students to solve equations and execute various other mathematical tasks (Gulley et al., 2017). Although obviously Nemeth is very important for students to learn, this may be a good option for students who were never given adequate training in Nemeth. Also, one STEM school showed how effective a school’s special and general education staff could be when working together (Bargerhuff, 2013). This school showed that with the collaboration of staff and the appropriate provision of accommodations students with disabilities could flourish in the STEM field (Bargerhuff, 2013).
Implications for Practitioners
A number of takeaway messages were gleaned from these youth in this study. First, youth represent a range of interests and abilities and the methods they use for accessing STEM content are as diverse as the youth themselves. Some direct quotes taken from some students may serve as the best advice to practitioners:
- When I work in the lab the students and teachers will say that they don't feel comfortable with me using certain materials. Sometimes I am not even allowed to touch the lab supplies.
- I prefer math one-on-one so I have the opportunity to work through things I don't understand--I feel I am better able to grasp the concepts that way.
- ... because she talked to me like a human being whether she understood what I needed as a blind person or not.
- In most science and math classes, teachers will present materials extremely visually (i.e. writing things on the board and pointing to them by way of explanation). Also, I am usually not allowed to participate in labs, especially in Biology, on the grounds that it is too visual, I will hurt myself, or I will get in the way.
- Try to explain things more conceptually than visually.
- We are just like other kids, except for the fact that we use alternative techniques to learn. If they present things in a nonvisual way, we'll do just as well, if not better, than our sighted peers.
- They should know that the websites and software should have capabilities to use with a refreshable Braille display and speech. They should also code the site so that a blind student can type in answers, read problems in math, and be able to go to the next question without another person who's sighted to do it for them.
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