Braille, Print, or Both?

Braille, Print, or Both?

Future Reflections Spring 1999, Vol. 18 No. 1
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Braille, Print, or Both?

From the Editor:
I’ve been asked by parents and teachers to print something about the nuts
and bolts of how to evaluate a child for print and/or Braille. In light of the
1997 IDEA amendments, which require that an evaluation is done before an IEP
team can decide to not provide Braille instruction to a blind or visually impaired
child, this seemed like a good suggestion. I decided to reprint portions of
the guidelines used by teachers of the visually impaired in my state (Maryland).
Even though I served on the task force that developed the guidelines (and therefore
admit I might have some bias), I do think they are about as good as any I’ve
seen.
The guidelines
were developed by the Maryland State Department of Education, Division of Special
Education, in consultation with the Mid-South Regional Resource Center, University
of Kentucky. The document is called Selection of Reading and Writing Media
for Students with Visual Impairments: Braille, Print, or Both? A Resource Document,
December, 1992. It is a 24-page document (not counting the preface and contents
page) with appendices that include: “A. Definitions, B. Assessment Questions
for Families and Students, C. Functional Vision Assessment Questions, and D.
Reading List.” I have reprinted the preface and parts IV and V of the five-part
body of the document.
A limited number
of free print copies of the complete Maryland Resource document are available
from:
National Organization of Parents of Blind
Children
1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21230
Other print/Braille
assessment kits and evaluation guidelines are available from: American
Printing House for the Blind, 1-800-223-1839, website: <www:aph.org> and
the Texas School for the Blind, (512) 454-8631, website: <www.tsbvi.edu/publications/>.

Here now are
the excerpts from Selection of Reading and Writing Media for Students
with Visual Impairments: Braille, Print, or Both? A Resource Document:
Preface
In recent years,
the use of Braille by school-age children who are visually impaired has become
the focus of advocacy groups and educators. Many individuals have come to believe
there has been a decline in the use of Braille, and see this as a cause of illiteracy
among blind and visually impaired students.
To address
concerns that had been raised in Maryland, the State Department of Education
established an advisory panel in November, 1991, to develop guidelines to be
used by Admission, Review, and Dismissal/Individualized Education Program Committees
(ARD/IEP Committees) when determining reading and writing media for students
with visual impairments. At the same time, a task force was formed by the National
Federation of the Blind of Maryland to draft legislation related to literacy
for students who are blind and visually impaired. These efforts took place concurrently
for most of the 1991-92 school year. Participants in both of these activities
included members of the Department, local school systems, the Maryland School
for the Blind, the National Federation of the Blind, the American Council for
the Blind, and consumers.
In May, 1992, Governor William Donald Schaefer signed H.B.
859, Blind Student’s Literacy Rights and Education Act. This legislation
creates a presumption that proficiency in Braille is essential to the literacy
of blind and visually impaired students and imposes certain procedural requirements
on the decision-making process beyond what is contained in the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and COMAR 13A.05.01. [Editor’s
note: with the passage of the 1997 IDEA amendments, this statement
is no longer true. IDEA now has a Braille literacy provision, too.] The primary
purpose of this document is to provide guidance and direction to local education
agencies and state operated programs for implementation of this legislation.

Additionally,
it is intended that this document will increase the awareness level about Braille
among school personnel, provide a mechanism that will allow for consistency
among local education agencies and state operated programs when making decisions
about a student’s reading and writing media, and assist ARD/IEP Committee
members in their educational decision-making.
While literacy
involves more than reading and writing, these two functions remain critical
keys for achieving literacy. This document focuses on reading and writing, assuming
that other functions will be addressed as needed. The document also has a strong
focus toward Braille. This emphasis is not intended to discourage other options
available to students who are blind or visually impaired. These options are
widely accepted and used, and are generally familiar to professionals and the
general public. It is hoped that this emphasis will counterbalance what is perceived
by some as a long-standing preference for print and that the use of Braille
will be more positively received by school personnel and families.
IV. Assessment Process
The following
guidelines are designed to assist in the assessment of students who are readers,
or who have the cognitive ability to become readers. The ARD/IEP Committee must
have the medical and functional vision data and be aware of future reading needs.
Other information about cognitive and affective development, learning style,
and motor skills will assist in the development of appropriate individualized
teaching strategies. Assessments should be conducted in a prompt and timely
manner. Reading and writing instruction in Braille and/or print should never
be delayed, but should be initiated on an interim basis as necessary.
Medical
Information:
Current medical
information about the eye condition should include etiology, diagnosis, prognosis,
treatment, best corrected near and distance acuities, and visual fields. A low
vision report may provide helpful information about: contrast sensitivity, binocularity,
eye fatigue, recommended visual environment (e.g., glare reduction and illumination
adjustments), ocular-motor skills, and prescribed optical and non-optical low
vision devices.
Medical information
about additional disabilities may be relevant. Some physical conditions and
cognitive impairments may affect the student’s ability to read and write.
Medication can impact visual and/or tactual functioning.
Functional
Vision Information:
A comprehensive
functional vision assessment will be the cornerstone of the overall assessment.
In order to obtain the most complete information possible, the team should work
closely with family, student, classroom teachers, and related service providers
to evaluate the following factors:
Physical
Factors: Working distance from page, endurance, fluctuating vision, fatigue,
headache, backache, eye strain, stamina, posture, arm strength, and head position
provide information on the functional use of vision.
Environmental
Factors: The student’s reaction to natural and artificial lighting,
glare, color, and contrast sensitivity are critical to performance expectations.
Print Reading
Factors: Performance demands created by print size, print style, spacing,
clarity, contrast, and reading speed and accuracy both silent and oral must
be part of the total assessment.
Handwriting
Factors: Legibility, pen type, and writing and reading speed and accuracy
provide information concerning a student’s ability to carry out functional
handwriting demands.
Low Vision
Technological Factors: Dependence on CCTV, hand-held magnifiers, and other
support mechanisms provide further data concerning a student’s functional
vision.
Note: In evaluating
prereaders, more emphasis must be placed on the physical and environmental factors
plus available medical information.
Projected Reading and Writing Needs:
An assessment
of reading and writing needs will carefully consider how a student will function
in upcoming years as print size diminishes and reading demands increase. The
appropriate reading and writing media must provide for effective personal communication
and full participation in community, vocational, and social settings.

General Educational Information:
Cognitive
Development: A student’s concept development; visual, tactual, and
auditory discrimination; perception; and language development should be evaluated
to determine how the student is functioning relative to peers in the areas of
reading and writing.
Affective
Development: Consideration of socialization skills, recreational and vocational
interests, plus motivation for learning will help the ARD/IEP Committee gain
insight into how the student’s affective development is impacting the ability
to perform general educational and specific visual tasks over time.
Fine Motor
Skills: Consideration should be given to the student’s current tactual
discrimination, hand and finger dexterity, finger isolation, finger touch, finger
strength, and page turning ability. These aspects of physical development assist
in selecting strategies for teaching reading and writing, either print or Braille.
V. Decision-Making Process
The decision
to teach Braille, print, or both will take into consideration all of the information
gathered during the assessment. The assessment information will help the team
select from among the following options. Students may be taught to use:
1. Braille
2. Print
3. Braille, complemented with print
4. Print, complemented with Braille
The remainder
of this section provides examples of the kinds of assessment data that will
assist a team in choosing one of the four options. Of course, assessment descriptions
provided below are somewhat generic, i.e., not all parts of the descriptions
will apply to each student. Since students are individuals, not everyone will
fit neatly into one of the four categories. In reviewing these descriptions,
team members should ask which factors best describe the individual student.

It is also
important to remember that when the selected option includes both Braille and
print, the amount of usage with one or the other will vary with each student.
Student input should be obtained so that the team decision is sensitive to student
preference and concerns. Additionally, as a student’s vision or visual
demands change over time, the usage of one medium over another may change.
However, even
though a student may use one medium more than another at a given point in time,
it is critical that the student develop proficient use of both. For the preschool
student, this will mean that opportunities for visual and tactual activities
are provided equally. Later, the amount of time teaching or practicing with
a certain medium will depend on all assessment data and the current needs of
the student. The team must continually focus on the ultimate outcome that the
student will be able to choose and use the medium of preference or the medium
most functional for a given situation.
Which Students Should
Learn Braille?
Medical Factors:
Student is totally blind, nearly so, or is expected to experience rapid loss
of vision.
Physical
Factors: An additional disability does not interfere with the ability to
learn Braille.
Environmental
Factors: Adjustments in natural and artificial lighting do not enhance student
ability to read print.
Print Reading
Factors: If the student can read print at all, reading is extremely slow
and laborious, even when all print factors have been adjusted for maximum efficiency.
Handwriting
Factors: Student cannot read own handwriting to carry out functional handwriting
demands.
Low Vision
Technological Factors: Student cannot read print at any comfort level, even
using a CCTV or other non-portable devices.
Which Students Should
Learn Print?
Medical Factors:
Student has a stable eye condition, or has a prognosis of continued improvement.
Physical
Factors: Student experiences no fatigue or discomfort from reading. The
nature of an additional disability prohibits tactual reading. Student, when
systematically assessed, exhibits inability to process tactual information with
any accuracy and facility.
Environmental
Factors: Student does not require extensive modifications in natural or
artificial lighting in order to read comfortably for extended periods of time.
Print Reading
Factors: Student reads regular print comfortably and efficiently, in most
settings and circumstances. Reading rate and accuracy is commensurate with student’s
expected grade level. Performance level is commensurate with overall ability.
Student can use print easily for all academic, nonacademic, and vocational needs.
Handwriting
factors: Student has legible handwriting and can easily read own and others’
notes at a comfortable distance, even after some time has elapsed.
Low Vision
Technological Factors: Student reads regular print without low vision devices
and comfortably uses pocket-size magnification for reading fine print, such
as the telephone book, medicine labels, dictionary, and encyclopedia.
Which Students Should
Learn Braille Complemented with Print?
Medical Factors:
Student has diagnosis or prognosis of severe visual impairment, has a degenerative
eye condition, or has severely restricted visual fields.
Physical
Factors: Student holds book close to face, can read only large print, or
regularly suffers from headaches, fatigue, or visual discomfort after reading.
Student exhibits strong preference for tactual exploration and learning. Student
can read using an electronic low vision aid, but with effort; cannot read with
hand-held magnifiers with any reasonable speed or comprehension. Student is
consistently unable independently to complete assigned school work in a timely
manner.
Environmental
Factors: Glare and/or lighting variations make reading difficult or impossible
in many settings.
Print Reading
Factors: Student’s print reading speed is far below that of other students
of the same development level. Student consistently demonstrates inaccuracy
when reading. Student has difficult in reading a variety of print styles or
print on colored background.
Handwriting
Factors: Student can only read notes when written with a broad tip pen 1-2
inches high and may have difficulty accurately reading what was written, or
can only read notes using a CCTV or other non-portable devices.
Low Vision
Technological Factors: Student can write only when using a CCTV or other
non-portable devices.
Which Students Should
Learn Print Complemented With Braille?
Medical Factors:
Student has a currently stable eye condition but is at risk of eventual deterioration,
has a slowly progressive eye condition, has restricted visual fields, or has
fluctuating vision.
Physical
Factors: Student posture during reading results in back and neck strain
or headaches. Student complains of watering eyes, blurring, or other visual
discomfort after extensive reading or writing tasks. Student cannot complete
assignments without relying on other individuals or technology for reading and/or
note taking.
Environmental
Factors: Glare and/or lighting variations make reading difficult or impossible
in some settings.
Print Reading
Factors: Student cannot read regular print, easily and accurately, for an
appropriate length of time in order to complete tasks throughout the day. Student
may read material in both regular and large print formats. Student reads primarily
in large print format combined with optical or electronic low vision devices.
Student is unable to maintain a reading rate commensurate with grade level work
demands. Student depends on extraordinarily large print for accessing practical
information such as oral report notes, grocery lists, names and addresses, etc.
In preschool, observations should include how a student approaches learning,
i.e., a visual versus tactual approach.
Handwriting
Factors: Student has difficulty producing and reading own or other’s
handwriting.
Low Vision
Technological Factors: Student may use CCTV or other non-portable devices
for visual materials such as maps and diagrams.
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